Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians

Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is seeks to verify the limited studies into the relationship between EI and OP amongst librarians. There appears to be very little research, or study investigating the areas synthesizing library administration issues and the study of EI in information works. Although researchers allude to the need to be able to understand and manage their own emotions as an information provider, the lack of research combining the areas of EI of librarians in Malaysian public libraries suggests a large gap in a very important research area (Quinn, 2002; Hernon, 2008 and Singer, 2005). Consequently, a study that focuses on a public librarians perceived need for EI would fill this gap and therefore contribute to the existing EI literature. The following information is provided as a literature review encompassing an overview of the different constructs and theories of EI, as researched by several authors. The historical context and development of Malaysian Public Libraries will also be explored in this literature review. The topics of EI, and the area of information works, are reviewed individually within, as there is very little research on issues pertaining to the combination of these topics. This chapter furnishes an encompassing review on past literature, which covers a richness of information on EI research in general. There are 8 parts itemized as follows: Part 1 contains the introduction; Part 2 gives the description of EI history, theory, models and development; Part 3 discusses EI and applications in the workplace EI; Part 4 discusses librarians standard skills and capabilities; Part 5 shows clearly occupational performance; Part 6 examines the relationship between EI and performance, and finally, Part 7 summarizes all elements of this review. 2.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2.2.1 Introduction Twenty years ago, researchers didnt much pay attention the topic of emotions in the workplace, perhaps because emotions were viewed too difficult to be measured and were thought of as illogical, unstable, and not fit for decision making tool; they were therefore less popular and largely unexplored among researchers (Arvey et al., 1998 and Muchinsky, 2000). Early 1990 however, researchers have begun to recognize that emotions should not be excluded from skill and competency of organizational, because it can be used in ways that contribute constructively to organizations (Arvey et al., 1998 and Fredman, Ghini and Dijk, 2008). In relation to this, it is motivating researchers to study the emotions in organizations. For instance, study on occupational performance has adopted a more affective focus. Additionally, new interest in the people feeling on work behavior has been influential in turning attention to the more emotional side of workplace experiences (e.g., Brief, Butcher, Roberson, 1995; Fisher Ashkanasy, 2000). Fisher and Ashkanasy (2000) and Ryback Wenny (2007) also claim the popularity of EI as a mechanism for new research in the workplace. The information below was derived from the previous empirical studies and multiple formats of resources. 2.1.2 Definition There is no definitive definition of EI. Many authors define EI as the ability to understand feelings, either internally or externally. Numerous studies indicate that, knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities are usually blended with performance. The term and concepts of EI were coined by Golemen (1995; 1998) in his two books, EI and Working with EI and developed a dimension and attribute of EI as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill. However different authors have defined EI to some extent differently from Goleman. Mayer and Saloveys (1997) meaning is a kind of intelligence in that it emphasizes thinking, perceiving, understanding, appraising, discriminating, and identifying emotion. Golemans concept of EI, in distinction, relates to the way people function emotionally if their functioning is at its potential or at least is not problematic. From the viewpoint of Weisingers (1998) gives descriptions and definition of EI is comparatively close to Golemans when he described EI is the intelligent use of emotions. It in comparison to Golemans, Cooper and Sawafs (1997) delimitation gives greater attention to the higher directions of human behavior, mainly aspects correlated with leadership. Their concept comprehends factors such as intuition, integrity, personal purpose, and creativity which is not emphasized by Goleman. In contrast, Simmons and Simmons (1997) approach to EI are very different from Golemans when they relate EI to multiple relatively invariant character traits. These theorists and many others defined and explained the concept of EI. There is no single definition in defining EI. Here I will include the five most popular ones. EI can be defined as: 1. â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide ones thinking and action† (Mayer Salovey,1993). 2. â€Å"ability to recognize and express emotions in yourself, your ability to understand the emotions of colleagues.† (Gardner, 1983). 3. â€Å"the intelligent use of emotions: you intentionally make your emotions work for you by using them to help guide your behaviour and thinking in ways that enhance your results.† (Weisinger, 1998). 4. â€Å"the ability to: 1) be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself; 2) be aware of, to understand, and to relate to others; 3) deal with strong emotions and control ones impulses; and 4) adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature (Reuven Bar-On, 1998). 5. â€Å"the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.(Goleman, 1998) Based on the profusion of definitions, there seems to be no major differences among the definition of EI throughout the years. In consequence, EI generally entails the ability to understand and recognize feeling internally or intrapersonal and externally or interpersonal to make good decision. More timely, for this study, the researcher adopts the comprehensive of EI articulated by Goleman (1998) â€Å"a learned capability based on EI that resulted in outstanding performance at work†. EI echoes how an individuals possible for mastering the skills of Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management translates into work performance. Having defined EI, the following sections will highlight the literature related to EI and performance in library works. 2.1.2 Evolution of EI In 1920, Thordike described the concept of EI as a form of social intelligence. He has divided intelligence into three facets; understanding and managing ideas (abstract intelligence), concrete objects (mechanical intelligence), and people (social intelligence). In his expression: By social intelligence is meant the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls to act wisely in human relations. Further, in 1940, Wechsler, viewed intelligence as an effect and conceived that assessments of general intelligence are not adequate and consider that non-intellectual factors, such as personality, will influence the development of an individuals intelligence. Additionally, attention in social intelligence or other intelligence was reinvigorated in 1983 when Gardner introduced the theory of multiple intelligence (Brualdi, 1996; Gardner, 1995) and proposed an extensive field of differing intelligences. In relation to this, Mayer and Salovey, (1990) coined the term EI in their article â€Å"EI,† from the journal â€Å"Imagination, Cognition and Personality† while Goleman, (1995) brought EI to the characteristic and developed his own model of EI. Ultimately, the concept of EI has been expanded and applied to numerous disciplines including services (e.g. Sales, Hospitality, banking, and school and information services etc). The evolving of EI as described in 2.1 below. 2.1.2.1 Social Intelligence Social intelligence can be defined differently. Social intelligence can be defined as â€Å"the ability to understand and manage people to act wisely in human relations† (Thorndike, 1920, p. 228). Nevertheless, in the late 1930s, Thorndike and Stein (1937) altered the earlier definition of social intelligence to read, the â€Å"ability to understand and manage people† while a few years later, Gardner (1983) outlined his theory of multiple intelligences and he described in detail seven â€Å"relatively autonomous† of human intellectual competences (eg; linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, personal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal). Likewise, Moss and Hunt (1927) described social intelligence as the ability to get along with others (p. 108). Six years later as Vernon (1933), defined the social intelligence as the persons ability to get along with people in general, social technique or ease in society, knowledge of social matters, susceptibility to s timuli from other members of a group, as well as insight into the temporary moods or underlying personality traits of strangers (p. 44). It was recognised by Maulding (2002) that EI was closely related to personal intelligence and was further qualified by Gardner with is employment of two personal intelligence aspects; intrapersonal and interpersonal. Intrapersonal intelligence was further depicted by Gardner as the capacity to be discriminating among ones feelings; to label them, and use them in ways to understand and guide ones behavior and interpersonal intelligence as â€Å"turns outward, to other individuals†. This focal point examined â€Å"the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals, and in particular, among their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions†. Thus â€Å"Personal Intelligence† covers the close relationship of both intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence because, as Gardner noted, â€Å"these two forms of knowledge are intimately intermingled†. 2.1.2.1 Intelligence There were numerous outstanding theorists were asked to define intelligence; unfortunate some definitions were obtained (Sternberg Detterman, 1986) differently. White (2002) clarification, ‘In philosophical works we can find discussions of consciousness, perception and sensation, thought, action, memory, emotion and imagination, but rarely anything on intelligence (White, 2002, p.78). In other words, Hand (2004) discussed the concept of Intelligence that is in general as stipulating technical senses and attempting to describe the ordinary sense. In contrast (Neisser et al., 1996) described intelligence are attempts to clarify and organize a vast array of phenomena that include: â€Å"the ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environments, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought†. Even when experts in intelligence discuss the definition there appears more controversy than consensus (Matthews et al., 2002). Unlike other definitions of intelligence, Wechsler (1958) described intelligence as â€Å"the aggregate or the global capacity of the individual to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment†. Although many definitions were given by different authors, however, many studies of intelligence, in particular the psychometric approach, have provided a â€Å"predictor† of success (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2000). 2.1.2.2 Emotions Emotion can be categorized as part of Social Intelligence was introduced by Gardner in 1930. The science of emotion has been problematic and is impeded with the complexities of linking tangible realities to the elusive, subjective, and experiential nature of emotions (Matthews et al., 2002). In the context of psychology, Salovey and Mayer provided a definition of emotions as: Organized responses crossing boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems. Emotions typically arise in response to an event, either internal or external, that has a positively or negatively balanced meaning for an individual. Emotions can be distinguished from the closely related concept of mood in that emotions are shorter and generally more intense (1990, p. 186). 2.1.2.3 Emotional Intelligence Mayer and Salovey (1990) wrote an article and outlining their EI framework. EI was listed by them at that time as a division of social intelligence. Elements of Gardners personal intelligence study were employed when Mayer and Salovey defined EI as â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings, to discriminate amongst them and to use this information to guide ones thinking and actions† (p. 189). The book entitled EI (1995) was published as a way of coping with the pointless acts that were taking place, (Salopek, 1998) and became the best seller status. After that the interest in EI took place (Mandell Pherwani, 2003). Goleman persistent on this success in 1998 with a book entitled Working with EI where he reviewed 18 EI competencies usable in the workplace. Mayer and Saloveys (1990) definition of EI were modified by Goleman (1998c) with his revised definition of EI, â€Å" ‘EI refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships† p317). Goleman listed 5 social and emotional groups self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. This was subsequently reduced to just 4 after the arrival and review of new information. He continues to refine his model and emphasize a mixture of interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence in defining EI and employed the four clusters (Maulding, 2002). The 4 new groups were labelled as self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Self-awareness and self-management were merged into a â€Å"personal competence† category which included the capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage ourselves† (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39). The capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage relationships† define the Social Competency category (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39) and include the social awareness and relationship management groups. In the context of thois study, researcher will use the GolemansModel as baseline or guideline to develop EI measurement for librarians. Yet a few competencies related to Malaysian public librarian nature will be considered (eg, spiritual, information literacy, Islamic values ect.) in the new model. Table 2.1 Five Periods of Development in Emotions and Intelligence in the Past Century Period The Emergence of The EI Concept 1900-1969 (Thorndike, 1920) Intelligence and Emotions as Separate Narrow Fields Psychometric approach to intelligence is developed and refined.  · Movement from Darwins theory for heritability and evolution of emotional responses to now being viewed as culturally determined.  · Social Intelligence (Thorndike, 1920) as the concept is introduced. 1970-1989 (David Wechsler, 1940) Non-intellective aspects of general intelligence The field of cognition and affect emerged to examine how emotions interacted with thoughts.  · Gardner (1983) theory of multiple intelligences described an intrapersonal and an interpersonal intelligence.  · Empirical work on social intelligence developed four components: social skills, empathy skills, pro-social attitudes, and emotionality (sensitivity). 1990-1993 (Gardner, 1983) Multiple intelligences; interpersonal intelligence-people smart; intrapersonal intelligence-self-smart Mayer and Salovey publish a series of articles on EI.  · First ability measure of EI published.  · Editor of the journal Intelligence argued for an existence of EI.  · Further developments for EI in the brain sciences. 1994-1997 (Goleman 1995) The Popularization and Broadening EQ  · Goleman (1995) publishes EI which becomes worldwide best-seller.  · Time magazine used the term â€Å"EQ† on its cover (Gibbs, 1995, October 2).  · Measures of EI using mixed model theories were published. 1998-Present (Peter Salovey Jack Mayer, 1990 EI  · Refinements to the concept of EI.  · New measures of EI introduced.  · Appearance of peer-reviewed articles on the subject. 2.2.4 2.2 Model of EI 2.2.1 Introduction There are many researchers that exist within the area of intelligences developed several models and theories to address EI (Gardner, 1990; Bar-On, 2008; Bernet, 1996; Brown, 1999; Brualdi, 1996; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls, 2001; Caruso, Mayer, Perkins Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 2007; Ciarrochi, Chan, Caputi, Roberts, 2001; Dulewicz Higgs, 2000; Finegan, 1998; Gardner, 1995; Goleman, 1995; Goleman, 1998; Goleman, 2008; Langley, 2000; Mayer Geher, 2007; Mayer, Caruso Salovey, 2003; Mayer, Salovey Caruso, 2000; Mayer, 2001; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, Sitarenios, 2001; Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey, 2001; McDowelle Bell, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates, Bramel, 2001; Salovey Mayer, 1990; Salovey Sluyter, 1997; Weiss, 2000). The model of EI is comprised into two types; the ability model and mixed model. a) Ability model can be defined, EI as a set of mental abilities and constructs claims about the importance of emotional information and the potential uses of reasoning well with that information. Representatives of this model are Mayer and Salovey (1997) with four-branch model of EI. b) mixed model, whereas more commonly orienting and mixes mental abilities with personality attributes. Model from Goleman (2001), Cooper Sawaf (1997) and Bar-on (1997) are representatives for mixed model, but they expanded the meaning of EI by explicitly mixing the ability to understand and process emotion with other diverse parts of personality or skills, hence creating mixed approaches to EI. On the other word, the mixed model is defined as a combination of non cognitive abilities, personality traits and competencies (Goldsmith, 2008). 2.2.2 Models Assessing Emotional Intelligence 2.1.2 Bar-Ons Model of EI Bar-On reports that the EQ-i â€Å"was originally constructed as an experimental instrument designed to examine the concept of emotional and social functioning in the early 1980s (Bar-On, 2001, p.363). He created the term emotional quotient (EQ) to describe his mixed approach to the evaluation of an individuals general intelligence. He explained that the emotional quotient reflects our ability to operate successfully with other people and with our feelings (Bar-On, 2001). Bar-On developed the Bar-On EQ-i and instrument has been translated into twenty-two languages and normative data has been collected in more than fifteen countries (Bar-On, 2001). This EI inventory is the first scientifically developed and validated measure of EI that reflects ones ability to deal with environmental challenges and helps to predict ones success in life, including professional and personal pursuits (AbiSamra, 2000 and Bar-on, 2001). This model is separated into five different scales with fifteen subscales as detailed in Table 2.3. The first of these scales assess an individuals Intrapersonal EQ which consists of self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self- actualization. The second scale assesses the individuals Interpersonal EQ consisting of empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationships. Adaptability EQ is the third measure of Bar-Ons scale. This scale focuses on reality testing, flexibility and problem solving or how an individual handles emotion in the moment. The fourth scale assesses an individuals Stress Management EQ. This scale is comprised of stress tolerance and impulse control. The fifth and final scale of the EQ-i measures an individuals General Mood EQ, consisting of optimism and happiness. Bar-On reports that the research â€Å"findings obtained to date suggest that the EQ-i is measuring emotional and social intelligence†¦more specifically, the EQ-i is tapping the ability to be aware of, understand, control, and express emotions† (Bar-On, 2001, pp.372 -373). This ability model created by Bar-On is a selection of emotional, personal and social abilities that affect an individuals overall ability to manage the daily pressures and demands of life. Bar-On further reports that the ability is â€Å"apparently based on a core capacity to be aware of, understand, control and express emotions effectively† (p.374). Although Bar-Ons early research focused on the emotional quotient, it was not until the 1990s that EI truly began to receive recognition as a distinct form of intelligence (Geher, Warner Brown, 2001; Salovey Sluyter, 1997). The concept of an individuals EI (EI) was explained and expanded upon by Mayer and Salovey in 1990 (Mayer, Perkins, Caruso S alovey, 2001), and popularized by Daniel Goleman in 1995 (Goleman, 1995). 2.1.3 Golemans In 1995, Goleman elaborated on the original Salovey Mayer definition of EI to suggest five major EI domains as reported in Table 4. Table 4: Golemans original model of EI. Golemans Model of EI 1. Assessment of emotions 2. Regulation of emotions 3. Motivating and emotional self control 4. Understanding and recognizing emotions 5. Relationships and emotions The first of Golemans EI domains includes knowing ones emotions. This domain involves assessing and knowing what the emotion is as it occurs. The second domain of managing emotions is described as handling those emotions in an appropriate manner that builds on self-awareness. Motivating oneself or emotional self-control is the third domain. The fourth domain involves recognizing emotions in others. This domain involves empathy and Goleman considers it to be a â€Å"people skill† (Goleman, 1995, p.43). The last domain in Golemans original model consists of handling relationships. Goleman states that the ability of handling a relationship is in part the ability of managing emotions in others. Goleman contends that capacities for EI each have a distinctive involvement to form our lives. To some extent, these capacities build upon one another to formulate social skills. These abilities do not guarantee that people will develop or display emotional competencies. Goleman suggests th at individuals use competencies in many areas across many spectrums. Goleman has currently revised his original theory of EI as shown in Table 5. He now suggests that there are four domains rather than his original five domains (Goleman, 2001B). Table 5: Golemans current model of EI. Golemans Current Model of EI 1. Emotional Self Awareness 2. Emotional Self Management 3. Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management The first component or cluster of EI is that of Emotional Self- Awareness, or knowing what one feels. Recognizing ones own feelings, how they affect ones performance, and the realization of our own strengths as well as our weaknesses, is an important part of the self-awareness cluster. The second component of EI is Emotional Self-Management. This component reflects the ability to regulate stressful affects such as anxiety or anger, as well as how to deal with those situations. This component is reflected when an individual seems to keep their cool during a stressful situation. Self-management also reflects the abilities of an individual to be flexible and adaptable, looking at different perspectives of a situation. Social-Awareness, the third component, encompasses the competency of empathy. The Social-Awareness cluster is described as the cluster where an individual is aware of others emotions, concerns, and needs. Being aware of this information and internally processing it, allows the individual to read situations and act accordingly. The Relationship Management component makes up the fourth segment of Golemans current model. This component relates to how we interact with others in emotional situations. Goleman believes that if we cannot control our emotional outbursts and impulses, and we lack the necessary skill of empathy, there is less chance that we will be effective in our relationships. The Relationship Management cluster includes many of the skills necessary for being successful in social situations. Communication is also an essential element in the relationship management cluster (Goleman, 2001b). According to Goleman (2001a), EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others. Currently, Goleman relates the capacities for each domain in his EI model are: makes a unique contribution to job performance; strong communications; capacities build upon one another; does not guarantee people will develop or display the associated competencies; The general list is to some extent applicable to all jobs. Although Goleman explains that these capacities are hierarchical, meaning that one cannot fully pass on to the next phase or tier without accomplishing the previous stage with some degree of success. These capacities are not fixed and an individual can experience many levels at the same time. Goleman (1998) also states that EI determines our potential for learning the practical skills that underlie the four EI clusters. He maintains that emotional competence illustrates how much of that potential we have realized by learning and mastering skills and translating EI into on the job capabilities. According to Hall Torrance (1980), empathy and super-awareness to the needs of others is a trait that lies outside the realm of human abilities that can be measured. Hall Torrance report that many attempts have been made to measure these abilities, but with very little success. In their view, if empathy and awareness to others needs were accessed in a way that was based on reasoning, those qualities may reflect a measurable intellectual ability that would be associated with friendliness, compassion and happiness; all traits reported to be representative characteristics of emotionally intelligent individuals (Goleman, 1995; Pfeiffer, 2001). The information reported in 1980 by Hall and Torrance was prescient in that these traits are currently being measured as traits of EI. The traits of flexibility and freedom of thoughts as well as a high rating of motivation, either intrinsic or extrinsic, the ability to express emotion, the ability to manage stress, self confidence, and the ability to cope with tension are also valued characteristics of EI (Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 1998; Goleman, 1995, 1997; Levinson, 1997; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates Bramel, 2001). Currently, Goleman emphasizes that EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others (Cherniss Goleman, 2001; Goleman, 2001A). According to Goleman, EI refers to the ability to recognize our own feelings and those of others, to motivate ourselves, and to manage emotions in ourselves and in our relationships. (Clawson 1999; Dulewicz Higgs 2000; Goleman 1998; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls 2001). In another cognitive research study conducted by Sternberg, Wagner, Williams, and Horvath (cited in McDowelle Bell, 1998) it is reported that these differences in IQ and success at work accounted for between 4% and 25% variance of job performance. This leads us to the conclusion that a major part of what enhances our job performance is affected by non-IQ factors. McDowelle Bell (1998) state â€Å"emotionality and rationality complement each other in the work world. They can be viewe d as inseparable parts of the life of the organization. 2.1.4 Salovey and Mayers Since the origination of the theory of EI in 1990, Mayer and Salovey have worked diligently to refine their academic and scientific model of EI model. Their current model, developed in 1997, is decidedly cognitive in focus and revolves around four tiers or ratings that are not genetically fixed or set in early childhood. As people grow and develop, they also seem to develop a greater sense of EI suggesting that these traits of EI can be developed over time (Epstein, 1999; Ford-Martin, 2001; Goleman, 2001A; Weiss, 2000). According to Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey (2001), the emotionally intelligent person is skilled in four distinct branches: identifying, using, understanding, and regulating emotions. These four distinct areas are outlined in Mayer and Saloveys current model. The newest model begins with the idea that emotions contain information about relationships (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios (2001). (See Table 6). The recognition, the evaluation and the communication of emotions initiate the first branch of Mayer and Saloveys model. The second branch involves using emotions to think constructively such as utilizing those emotions to make judgments, the consideration of an alternative viewpoint, and an appreciation that a change in emotional state and point of view can promote various types of solutions to problems. The third branch combines the abilities of classifying and differentiating between emotions to help integrate different feelings. This rating also works toward helping us t o form rules about the feelings we experience. The fourth and final branch involves the ability to take the emotions we experience and use them in support of a social goal (Finegan, 1998; Cherniss Goleman, 2001). The four hierarchical developmental branches established by Mayer and Salovey in 1997, although different from Golemans ratings of EI, seem to incorporate several fundamental principles of personal development theory. These developmental stages discussed by Salovey and Mayer are reported to be hierarchical. The Mayer and Salovey model frames the complexity of emotional skills that develop from the first tier and continue through the fourth, whereas Golemans competencies, in contrast, can be viewed along a continuum of mastery. Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey (2001), expected individuals need to be able to identify their emotions as well as the emotions of others. Using those emotions, understanding those emotions, and having the ability to manage those emotions is also required to be successful. Caruso et al. (2001) relate that when an individual works in an administrative or work environment that requires the cooperation and collaboration, the skills of EI become even more essential. Caruso et al. (2001) also report that EI can assist in facilitating this work in helping to generate new and creative ideas and solutions to problems. At times, some of the problems that are challenging an individual can be very complex, while at other times the problem-solving task may be effortless. According to Caruso et al. (2001), problem solving requires creative thought to generate ideal solutions. Caruso et al. (2001) deduce that EI can help the individual to think creatively in many ways such as, viewing the problem from multiple perspectives, brainstorming or generating new and creative ideas, being inventive, generating original ideas and solutions to the problem, and defining and recognizing new solutions. Table 2.3: Characteristics of Selected EI Model Bar-On (1980) Mixed Model Goleman (2005) Performance Model Mayer, Caruso and Salovey (1990) Ability Model (1) Awareness, Intrapersonal Assertiveness, EQ Self-Regard, Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is seeks to verify the limited studies into the relationship between EI and OP amongst librarians. There appears to be very little research, or study investigating the areas synthesizing library administration issues and the study of EI in information works. Although researchers allude to the need to be able to understand and manage their own emotions as an information provider, the lack of research combining the areas of EI of librarians in Malaysian public libraries suggests a large gap in a very important research area (Quinn, 2002; Hernon, 2008 and Singer, 2005). Consequently, a study that focuses on a public librarians perceived need for EI would fill this gap and therefore contribute to the existing EI literature. The following information is provided as a literature review encompassing an overview of the different constructs and theories of EI, as researched by several authors. The historical context and development of Malaysian Public Libraries will also be explored in this literature review. The topics of EI, and the area of information works, are reviewed individually within, as there is very little research on issues pertaining to the combination of these topics. This chapter furnishes an encompassing review on past literature, which covers a richness of information on EI research in general. There are 8 parts itemized as follows: Part 1 contains the introduction; Part 2 gives the description of EI history, theory, models and development; Part 3 discusses EI and applications in the workplace EI; Part 4 discusses librarians standard skills and capabilities; Part 5 shows clearly occupational performance; Part 6 examines the relationship between EI and performance, and finally, Part 7 summarizes all elements of this review. 2.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2.2.1 Introduction Twenty years ago, researchers didnt much pay attention the topic of emotions in the workplace, perhaps because emotions were viewed too difficult to be measured and were thought of as illogical, unstable, and not fit for decision making tool; they were therefore less popular and largely unexplored among researchers (Arvey et al., 1998 and Muchinsky, 2000). Early 1990 however, researchers have begun to recognize that emotions should not be excluded from skill and competency of organizational, because it can be used in ways that contribute constructively to organizations (Arvey et al., 1998 and Fredman, Ghini and Dijk, 2008). In relation to this, it is motivating researchers to study the emotions in organizations. For instance, study on occupational performance has adopted a more affective focus. Additionally, new interest in the people feeling on work behavior has been influential in turning attention to the more emotional side of workplace experiences (e.g., Brief, Butcher, Roberson, 1995; Fisher Ashkanasy, 2000). Fisher and Ashkanasy (2000) and Ryback Wenny (2007) also claim the popularity of EI as a mechanism for new research in the workplace. The information below was derived from the previous empirical studies and multiple formats of resources. 2.1.2 Definition There is no definitive definition of EI. Many authors define EI as the ability to understand feelings, either internally or externally. Numerous studies indicate that, knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities are usually blended with performance. The term and concepts of EI were coined by Golemen (1995; 1998) in his two books, EI and Working with EI and developed a dimension and attribute of EI as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill. However different authors have defined EI to some extent differently from Goleman. Mayer and Saloveys (1997) meaning is a kind of intelligence in that it emphasizes thinking, perceiving, understanding, appraising, discriminating, and identifying emotion. Golemans concept of EI, in distinction, relates to the way people function emotionally if their functioning is at its potential or at least is not problematic. From the viewpoint of Weisingers (1998) gives descriptions and definition of EI is comparatively close to Golemans when he described EI is the intelligent use of emotions. It in comparison to Golemans, Cooper and Sawafs (1997) delimitation gives greater attention to the higher directions of human behavior, mainly aspects correlated with leadership. Their concept comprehends factors such as intuition, integrity, personal purpose, and creativity which is not emphasized by Goleman. In contrast, Simmons and Simmons (1997) approach to EI are very different from Golemans when they relate EI to multiple relatively invariant character traits. These theorists and many others defined and explained the concept of EI. There is no single definition in defining EI. Here I will include the five most popular ones. EI can be defined as: 1. â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide ones thinking and action† (Mayer Salovey,1993). 2. â€Å"ability to recognize and express emotions in yourself, your ability to understand the emotions of colleagues.† (Gardner, 1983). 3. â€Å"the intelligent use of emotions: you intentionally make your emotions work for you by using them to help guide your behaviour and thinking in ways that enhance your results.† (Weisinger, 1998). 4. â€Å"the ability to: 1) be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself; 2) be aware of, to understand, and to relate to others; 3) deal with strong emotions and control ones impulses; and 4) adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature (Reuven Bar-On, 1998). 5. â€Å"the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.(Goleman, 1998) Based on the profusion of definitions, there seems to be no major differences among the definition of EI throughout the years. In consequence, EI generally entails the ability to understand and recognize feeling internally or intrapersonal and externally or interpersonal to make good decision. More timely, for this study, the researcher adopts the comprehensive of EI articulated by Goleman (1998) â€Å"a learned capability based on EI that resulted in outstanding performance at work†. EI echoes how an individuals possible for mastering the skills of Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management translates into work performance. Having defined EI, the following sections will highlight the literature related to EI and performance in library works. 2.1.2 Evolution of EI In 1920, Thordike described the concept of EI as a form of social intelligence. He has divided intelligence into three facets; understanding and managing ideas (abstract intelligence), concrete objects (mechanical intelligence), and people (social intelligence). In his expression: By social intelligence is meant the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls to act wisely in human relations. Further, in 1940, Wechsler, viewed intelligence as an effect and conceived that assessments of general intelligence are not adequate and consider that non-intellectual factors, such as personality, will influence the development of an individuals intelligence. Additionally, attention in social intelligence or other intelligence was reinvigorated in 1983 when Gardner introduced the theory of multiple intelligence (Brualdi, 1996; Gardner, 1995) and proposed an extensive field of differing intelligences. In relation to this, Mayer and Salovey, (1990) coined the term EI in their article â€Å"EI,† from the journal â€Å"Imagination, Cognition and Personality† while Goleman, (1995) brought EI to the characteristic and developed his own model of EI. Ultimately, the concept of EI has been expanded and applied to numerous disciplines including services (e.g. Sales, Hospitality, banking, and school and information services etc). The evolving of EI as described in 2.1 below. 2.1.2.1 Social Intelligence Social intelligence can be defined differently. Social intelligence can be defined as â€Å"the ability to understand and manage people to act wisely in human relations† (Thorndike, 1920, p. 228). Nevertheless, in the late 1930s, Thorndike and Stein (1937) altered the earlier definition of social intelligence to read, the â€Å"ability to understand and manage people† while a few years later, Gardner (1983) outlined his theory of multiple intelligences and he described in detail seven â€Å"relatively autonomous† of human intellectual competences (eg; linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, personal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal). Likewise, Moss and Hunt (1927) described social intelligence as the ability to get along with others (p. 108). Six years later as Vernon (1933), defined the social intelligence as the persons ability to get along with people in general, social technique or ease in society, knowledge of social matters, susceptibility to s timuli from other members of a group, as well as insight into the temporary moods or underlying personality traits of strangers (p. 44). It was recognised by Maulding (2002) that EI was closely related to personal intelligence and was further qualified by Gardner with is employment of two personal intelligence aspects; intrapersonal and interpersonal. Intrapersonal intelligence was further depicted by Gardner as the capacity to be discriminating among ones feelings; to label them, and use them in ways to understand and guide ones behavior and interpersonal intelligence as â€Å"turns outward, to other individuals†. This focal point examined â€Å"the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals, and in particular, among their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions†. Thus â€Å"Personal Intelligence† covers the close relationship of both intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence because, as Gardner noted, â€Å"these two forms of knowledge are intimately intermingled†. 2.1.2.1 Intelligence There were numerous outstanding theorists were asked to define intelligence; unfortunate some definitions were obtained (Sternberg Detterman, 1986) differently. White (2002) clarification, ‘In philosophical works we can find discussions of consciousness, perception and sensation, thought, action, memory, emotion and imagination, but rarely anything on intelligence (White, 2002, p.78). In other words, Hand (2004) discussed the concept of Intelligence that is in general as stipulating technical senses and attempting to describe the ordinary sense. In contrast (Neisser et al., 1996) described intelligence are attempts to clarify and organize a vast array of phenomena that include: â€Å"the ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environments, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought†. Even when experts in intelligence discuss the definition there appears more controversy than consensus (Matthews et al., 2002). Unlike other definitions of intelligence, Wechsler (1958) described intelligence as â€Å"the aggregate or the global capacity of the individual to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment†. Although many definitions were given by different authors, however, many studies of intelligence, in particular the psychometric approach, have provided a â€Å"predictor† of success (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2000). 2.1.2.2 Emotions Emotion can be categorized as part of Social Intelligence was introduced by Gardner in 1930. The science of emotion has been problematic and is impeded with the complexities of linking tangible realities to the elusive, subjective, and experiential nature of emotions (Matthews et al., 2002). In the context of psychology, Salovey and Mayer provided a definition of emotions as: Organized responses crossing boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems. Emotions typically arise in response to an event, either internal or external, that has a positively or negatively balanced meaning for an individual. Emotions can be distinguished from the closely related concept of mood in that emotions are shorter and generally more intense (1990, p. 186). 2.1.2.3 Emotional Intelligence Mayer and Salovey (1990) wrote an article and outlining their EI framework. EI was listed by them at that time as a division of social intelligence. Elements of Gardners personal intelligence study were employed when Mayer and Salovey defined EI as â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings, to discriminate amongst them and to use this information to guide ones thinking and actions† (p. 189). The book entitled EI (1995) was published as a way of coping with the pointless acts that were taking place, (Salopek, 1998) and became the best seller status. After that the interest in EI took place (Mandell Pherwani, 2003). Goleman persistent on this success in 1998 with a book entitled Working with EI where he reviewed 18 EI competencies usable in the workplace. Mayer and Saloveys (1990) definition of EI were modified by Goleman (1998c) with his revised definition of EI, â€Å" ‘EI refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships† p317). Goleman listed 5 social and emotional groups self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. This was subsequently reduced to just 4 after the arrival and review of new information. He continues to refine his model and emphasize a mixture of interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence in defining EI and employed the four clusters (Maulding, 2002). The 4 new groups were labelled as self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Self-awareness and self-management were merged into a â€Å"personal competence† category which included the capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage ourselves† (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39). The capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage relationships† define the Social Competency category (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39) and include the social awareness and relationship management groups. In the context of thois study, researcher will use the GolemansModel as baseline or guideline to develop EI measurement for librarians. Yet a few competencies related to Malaysian public librarian nature will be considered (eg, spiritual, information literacy, Islamic values ect.) in the new model. Table 2.1 Five Periods of Development in Emotions and Intelligence in the Past Century Period The Emergence of The EI Concept 1900-1969 (Thorndike, 1920) Intelligence and Emotions as Separate Narrow Fields Psychometric approach to intelligence is developed and refined.  · Movement from Darwins theory for heritability and evolution of emotional responses to now being viewed as culturally determined.  · Social Intelligence (Thorndike, 1920) as the concept is introduced. 1970-1989 (David Wechsler, 1940) Non-intellective aspects of general intelligence The field of cognition and affect emerged to examine how emotions interacted with thoughts.  · Gardner (1983) theory of multiple intelligences described an intrapersonal and an interpersonal intelligence.  · Empirical work on social intelligence developed four components: social skills, empathy skills, pro-social attitudes, and emotionality (sensitivity). 1990-1993 (Gardner, 1983) Multiple intelligences; interpersonal intelligence-people smart; intrapersonal intelligence-self-smart Mayer and Salovey publish a series of articles on EI.  · First ability measure of EI published.  · Editor of the journal Intelligence argued for an existence of EI.  · Further developments for EI in the brain sciences. 1994-1997 (Goleman 1995) The Popularization and Broadening EQ  · Goleman (1995) publishes EI which becomes worldwide best-seller.  · Time magazine used the term â€Å"EQ† on its cover (Gibbs, 1995, October 2).  · Measures of EI using mixed model theories were published. 1998-Present (Peter Salovey Jack Mayer, 1990 EI  · Refinements to the concept of EI.  · New measures of EI introduced.  · Appearance of peer-reviewed articles on the subject. 2.2.4 2.2 Model of EI 2.2.1 Introduction There are many researchers that exist within the area of intelligences developed several models and theories to address EI (Gardner, 1990; Bar-On, 2008; Bernet, 1996; Brown, 1999; Brualdi, 1996; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls, 2001; Caruso, Mayer, Perkins Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 2007; Ciarrochi, Chan, Caputi, Roberts, 2001; Dulewicz Higgs, 2000; Finegan, 1998; Gardner, 1995; Goleman, 1995; Goleman, 1998; Goleman, 2008; Langley, 2000; Mayer Geher, 2007; Mayer, Caruso Salovey, 2003; Mayer, Salovey Caruso, 2000; Mayer, 2001; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, Sitarenios, 2001; Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey, 2001; McDowelle Bell, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates, Bramel, 2001; Salovey Mayer, 1990; Salovey Sluyter, 1997; Weiss, 2000). The model of EI is comprised into two types; the ability model and mixed model. a) Ability model can be defined, EI as a set of mental abilities and constructs claims about the importance of emotional information and the potential uses of reasoning well with that information. Representatives of this model are Mayer and Salovey (1997) with four-branch model of EI. b) mixed model, whereas more commonly orienting and mixes mental abilities with personality attributes. Model from Goleman (2001), Cooper Sawaf (1997) and Bar-on (1997) are representatives for mixed model, but they expanded the meaning of EI by explicitly mixing the ability to understand and process emotion with other diverse parts of personality or skills, hence creating mixed approaches to EI. On the other word, the mixed model is defined as a combination of non cognitive abilities, personality traits and competencies (Goldsmith, 2008). 2.2.2 Models Assessing Emotional Intelligence 2.1.2 Bar-Ons Model of EI Bar-On reports that the EQ-i â€Å"was originally constructed as an experimental instrument designed to examine the concept of emotional and social functioning in the early 1980s (Bar-On, 2001, p.363). He created the term emotional quotient (EQ) to describe his mixed approach to the evaluation of an individuals general intelligence. He explained that the emotional quotient reflects our ability to operate successfully with other people and with our feelings (Bar-On, 2001). Bar-On developed the Bar-On EQ-i and instrument has been translated into twenty-two languages and normative data has been collected in more than fifteen countries (Bar-On, 2001). This EI inventory is the first scientifically developed and validated measure of EI that reflects ones ability to deal with environmental challenges and helps to predict ones success in life, including professional and personal pursuits (AbiSamra, 2000 and Bar-on, 2001). This model is separated into five different scales with fifteen subscales as detailed in Table 2.3. The first of these scales assess an individuals Intrapersonal EQ which consists of self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self- actualization. The second scale assesses the individuals Interpersonal EQ consisting of empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationships. Adaptability EQ is the third measure of Bar-Ons scale. This scale focuses on reality testing, flexibility and problem solving or how an individual handles emotion in the moment. The fourth scale assesses an individuals Stress Management EQ. This scale is comprised of stress tolerance and impulse control. The fifth and final scale of the EQ-i measures an individuals General Mood EQ, consisting of optimism and happiness. Bar-On reports that the research â€Å"findings obtained to date suggest that the EQ-i is measuring emotional and social intelligence†¦more specifically, the EQ-i is tapping the ability to be aware of, understand, control, and express emotions† (Bar-On, 2001, pp.372 -373). This ability model created by Bar-On is a selection of emotional, personal and social abilities that affect an individuals overall ability to manage the daily pressures and demands of life. Bar-On further reports that the ability is â€Å"apparently based on a core capacity to be aware of, understand, control and express emotions effectively† (p.374). Although Bar-Ons early research focused on the emotional quotient, it was not until the 1990s that EI truly began to receive recognition as a distinct form of intelligence (Geher, Warner Brown, 2001; Salovey Sluyter, 1997). The concept of an individuals EI (EI) was explained and expanded upon by Mayer and Salovey in 1990 (Mayer, Perkins, Caruso S alovey, 2001), and popularized by Daniel Goleman in 1995 (Goleman, 1995). 2.1.3 Golemans In 1995, Goleman elaborated on the original Salovey Mayer definition of EI to suggest five major EI domains as reported in Table 4. Table 4: Golemans original model of EI. Golemans Model of EI 1. Assessment of emotions 2. Regulation of emotions 3. Motivating and emotional self control 4. Understanding and recognizing emotions 5. Relationships and emotions The first of Golemans EI domains includes knowing ones emotions. This domain involves assessing and knowing what the emotion is as it occurs. The second domain of managing emotions is described as handling those emotions in an appropriate manner that builds on self-awareness. Motivating oneself or emotional self-control is the third domain. The fourth domain involves recognizing emotions in others. This domain involves empathy and Goleman considers it to be a â€Å"people skill† (Goleman, 1995, p.43). The last domain in Golemans original model consists of handling relationships. Goleman states that the ability of handling a relationship is in part the ability of managing emotions in others. Goleman contends that capacities for EI each have a distinctive involvement to form our lives. To some extent, these capacities build upon one another to formulate social skills. These abilities do not guarantee that people will develop or display emotional competencies. Goleman suggests th at individuals use competencies in many areas across many spectrums. Goleman has currently revised his original theory of EI as shown in Table 5. He now suggests that there are four domains rather than his original five domains (Goleman, 2001B). Table 5: Golemans current model of EI. Golemans Current Model of EI 1. Emotional Self Awareness 2. Emotional Self Management 3. Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management The first component or cluster of EI is that of Emotional Self- Awareness, or knowing what one feels. Recognizing ones own feelings, how they affect ones performance, and the realization of our own strengths as well as our weaknesses, is an important part of the self-awareness cluster. The second component of EI is Emotional Self-Management. This component reflects the ability to regulate stressful affects such as anxiety or anger, as well as how to deal with those situations. This component is reflected when an individual seems to keep their cool during a stressful situation. Self-management also reflects the abilities of an individual to be flexible and adaptable, looking at different perspectives of a situation. Social-Awareness, the third component, encompasses the competency of empathy. The Social-Awareness cluster is described as the cluster where an individual is aware of others emotions, concerns, and needs. Being aware of this information and internally processing it, allows the individual to read situations and act accordingly. The Relationship Management component makes up the fourth segment of Golemans current model. This component relates to how we interact with others in emotional situations. Goleman believes that if we cannot control our emotional outbursts and impulses, and we lack the necessary skill of empathy, there is less chance that we will be effective in our relationships. The Relationship Management cluster includes many of the skills necessary for being successful in social situations. Communication is also an essential element in the relationship management cluster (Goleman, 2001b). According to Goleman (2001a), EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others. Currently, Goleman relates the capacities for each domain in his EI model are: makes a unique contribution to job performance; strong communications; capacities build upon one another; does not guarantee people will develop or display the associated competencies; The general list is to some extent applicable to all jobs. Although Goleman explains that these capacities are hierarchical, meaning that one cannot fully pass on to the next phase or tier without accomplishing the previous stage with some degree of success. These capacities are not fixed and an individual can experience many levels at the same time. Goleman (1998) also states that EI determines our potential for learning the practical skills that underlie the four EI clusters. He maintains that emotional competence illustrates how much of that potential we have realized by learning and mastering skills and translating EI into on the job capabilities. According to Hall Torrance (1980), empathy and super-awareness to the needs of others is a trait that lies outside the realm of human abilities that can be measured. Hall Torrance report that many attempts have been made to measure these abilities, but with very little success. In their view, if empathy and awareness to others needs were accessed in a way that was based on reasoning, those qualities may reflect a measurable intellectual ability that would be associated with friendliness, compassion and happiness; all traits reported to be representative characteristics of emotionally intelligent individuals (Goleman, 1995; Pfeiffer, 2001). The information reported in 1980 by Hall and Torrance was prescient in that these traits are currently being measured as traits of EI. The traits of flexibility and freedom of thoughts as well as a high rating of motivation, either intrinsic or extrinsic, the ability to express emotion, the ability to manage stress, self confidence, and the ability to cope with tension are also valued characteristics of EI (Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 1998; Goleman, 1995, 1997; Levinson, 1997; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates Bramel, 2001). Currently, Goleman emphasizes that EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others (Cherniss Goleman, 2001; Goleman, 2001A). According to Goleman, EI refers to the ability to recognize our own feelings and those of others, to motivate ourselves, and to manage emotions in ourselves and in our relationships. (Clawson 1999; Dulewicz Higgs 2000; Goleman 1998; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls 2001). In another cognitive research study conducted by Sternberg, Wagner, Williams, and Horvath (cited in McDowelle Bell, 1998) it is reported that these differences in IQ and success at work accounted for between 4% and 25% variance of job performance. This leads us to the conclusion that a major part of what enhances our job performance is affected by non-IQ factors. McDowelle Bell (1998) state â€Å"emotionality and rationality complement each other in the work world. They can be viewe d as inseparable parts of the life of the organization. 2.1.4 Salovey and Mayers Since the origination of the theory of EI in 1990, Mayer and Salovey have worked diligently to refine their academic and scientific model of EI model. Their current model, developed in 1997, is decidedly cognitive in focus and revolves around four tiers or ratings that are not genetically fixed or set in early childhood. As people grow and develop, they also seem to develop a greater sense of EI suggesting that these traits of EI can be developed over time (Epstein, 1999; Ford-Martin, 2001; Goleman, 2001A; Weiss, 2000). According to Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey (2001), the emotionally intelligent person is skilled in four distinct branches: identifying, using, understanding, and regulating emotions. These four distinct areas are outlined in Mayer and Saloveys current model. The newest model begins with the idea that emotions contain information about relationships (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios (2001). (See Table 6). The recognition, the evaluation and the communication of emotions initiate the first branch of Mayer and Saloveys model. The second branch involves using emotions to think constructively such as utilizing those emotions to make judgments, the consideration of an alternative viewpoint, and an appreciation that a change in emotional state and point of view can promote various types of solutions to problems. The third branch combines the abilities of classifying and differentiating between emotions to help integrate different feelings. This rating also works toward helping us t o form rules about the feelings we experience. The fourth and final branch involves the ability to take the emotions we experience and use them in support of a social goal (Finegan, 1998; Cherniss Goleman, 2001). The four hierarchical developmental branches established by Mayer and Salovey in 1997, although different from Golemans ratings of EI, seem to incorporate several fundamental principles of personal development theory. These developmental stages discussed by Salovey and Mayer are reported to be hierarchical. The Mayer and Salovey model frames the complexity of emotional skills that develop from the first tier and continue through the fourth, whereas Golemans competencies, in contrast, can be viewed along a continuum of mastery. Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey (2001), expected individuals need to be able to identify their emotions as well as the emotions of others. Using those emotions, understanding those emotions, and having the ability to manage those emotions is also required to be successful. Caruso et al. (2001) relate that when an individual works in an administrative or work environment that requires the cooperation and collaboration, the skills of EI become even more essential. Caruso et al. (2001) also report that EI can assist in facilitating this work in helping to generate new and creative ideas and solutions to problems. At times, some of the problems that are challenging an individual can be very complex, while at other times the problem-solving task may be effortless. According to Caruso et al. (2001), problem solving requires creative thought to generate ideal solutions. Caruso et al. (2001) deduce that EI can help the individual to think creatively in many ways such as, viewing the problem from multiple perspectives, brainstorming or generating new and creative ideas, being inventive, generating original ideas and solutions to the problem, and defining and recognizing new solutions. Table 2.3: Characteristics of Selected EI Model Bar-On (1980) Mixed Model Goleman (2005) Performance Model Mayer, Caruso and Salovey (1990) Ability Model (1) Awareness, Intrapersonal Assertiveness, EQ Self-Regard,

Analysis of Hamlet’s Morality Essay

Hamlet is one of the greatest dramatic characters created. Throughout the play, we acknowledge the complexity of his persona. Even without Shakespeare providing an elaborated description of Hamlet’s characteristics, we instantly perceive him as contradictory. At the beginning of the play, Hamlet is presented to us as a cautious and courteous man; however, due to the negative circumstances he has to face, we see how his moral character becomes reckless and uncivil. Shakespeare uses antithesis, allusion, and irony, to show the â€Å"demoralization† of Hamlet’s character. Throughout the play, Hamlet is overwhelmed by a feeling of revenge but hesitates in the murder of Claudius due to his fear of making the wrong decision. Hamlet is held back by his consideration of religious morals and beliefs. This is clearly shown right after Hamlet stages the play. †Claudius â€Å"rises† in guilty startlement at The Mousetrap’s revelations† (Essays on Values in Literature). After this point, Hamlet is fairly certain that Claudius is guilty, and comes across Claudius in the chapel. Hamlet is given the perfect opportunity to kill Claudius, but he decides that he doesn’t want to kill him while he is praying. Hamlet feels that if he murdered him during prayer, he would dishonor his father by sending Claudius to heaven. Instead, Hamlet wants to kill him while he is doing something horrific, ensuring Claudius goes to hell, where Hamlet feels he deserves to go. Hamlet says: Now might I do it pat, now he is praying; and now I’ll do’t. And so he goes to heaven, and so am I revenged. That would be scann’d: A villain kills my father; and for that, I, his sole son, do this same villain send To heaven. †¦No. Up sword, and know thou a more horrid hent. (3.3.77-83, 93) A very significant component to Hamlet’s loss of morality is his decision to act insanity. It is a major risk he is willing to take in order to accomplish his father’s request. Hamlet realizes this is the only way he will be able to investigate his father’s death without being perceived as a threat. However, for this plan to work he has to unchain a group of new personality traits that contribute to the deterioration of his morality. Hamlet puts into practice his new role with Ophelia, whom along with her father, believes his madness is a result of his rejection of her. This display takes Ophelia’s father Polonius to Claudius, and together they set a plan to spy on Hamlet, using Ophelia as the lure. Nevertheless, Hamlet is a clever man, and rapidly finds out what is happening. This is a devastating point in Hamlet’s life as he comes to the conclusion that he has lost everything he once loved. The terrible realization that his last source of hope is now lost takes Hamlet to a new stage. The last sense of respect he had towards the people around him is now gone. Hamlet starts to exceed his rely on his â€Å"madness† to tell the truth about his thoughts. First to Polonius: Slanders, sir: for the satirical rogue says here that old men have grey beards, that their faces are wrinkled, their eyes purging thick amber and plum-tree gum and that they have a plentiful lack of wit, together with most weak hams: all which, sir, though I most powerfully and potently believe, yet I hold it not honesty to have it thus set down, for yourself, sir, should be old as I am, if like a crab you could go backward.(2.2.214-222) And later to Ophelia and his mother: O God, your only jig-maker. What should a man do but be merry? for, look you, how cheerfully my mother looks, and my father died within these two hours.(3.2.130-135) Hamlet exhibits a new change in attitude after he returns from his uncompleted trip to England. He starts to feel a consuming anger against Claudius for his father’s death. He recognizes that his indecisiveness has been preventing him from action. Hamlet makes it clear that he wants to end his indecisiveness when he claims, â€Å"O, from this time forth/ my thoughts be bloody ore be nothing worth† (4.4.68-69) With this proclamation, Hamlet shows his deep desire to focus on the death of his uncle. This change makes Hamlet able to seek full revenge for his father’s death no matter the consequences. Hamlet is then completely transformed into a man that acts out of pure revenge. This is clearly demonstrated when Hamlet thinks Claudius is spying on him again and kills Polonius by accident. At this moment, it is evident that this is not the same cautious man we met before. Eventually, Hamlet’s new characteristics lead him to the achievement of his main and primary goal. In this play, â€Å"the moral component is there in Hamlet’s thinking† (Corruption in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, 70). His use of reason was his only tie to morality, and once this connection was broken, so was his moral character. However, Shakespeare plays with the idea of â€Å"what circumstances might justify an individual taking the law into his own hands† (Corruption in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, 69); leaving us with the question of whether Hamlet had lost his morality, or he was the only moral man in an immoral world. The complexity and contradictions expressed in this play and in Hamlet’s character make this work exceptional. Works Cited Grace, Tiffany. â€Å"Hamlet, reconciliation, and the just state.† Renascence: Essays on Values in Literature 58.2 (2005) Johnson, Vernon Elso. Corruption in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. Print.

Secrets About Persuasive Essay Topics for Colleges Students Exposed

Secrets About Persuasive Essay Topics for Colleges Students Exposed But What About Persuasive Essay Topics for Colleges Students? At exactly the same time, it's a terrific persuasive essay idea. There are several persuasive essay topics to pick from to finish your high school or college assignment. Weave in your perspective to earn your essay unique. If you're thinking about how to compose a persuasive essay, you should know that writing an essay is a complicated procedure. Good persuasive essay topics need to be persuasive. Persuasive essays share a whole lot of resemblance with argumentative essays. All things considered, you can observe that writing a persuasive essay isn't a brain surgery. Always bear in mind an ideal persuasive essay ought to be persuasive. The Number One Question You Must Ask for Persuasive Essay Topics for Colleges Students Students and teachers can buy balanced lunch and drinks besides alcohol, that enables them to feel nice and study far better. Parents must be at fault for providing a wholesome diet. They should talk to kids about drugs at a young age. They should talk to their children about drugs at a young age. Students are accustomed to the simple fact which their professors give them with the assignment's topic. They should be allowed to pray in school. They always go online when they need to find something. They should be careful about posting on social media. You have to know all elements of financial top ics as soon as you choose them. Apparently, you ought not purposely select a topic that will bore your audience. Still, you need to make your topic more specific. Argumentative essay topics are so important since they are debatableand it's essential to at all times be critically considering the world around us. Every argumentative essay ought to have an opposing view which can help you to prove you're right. Don't neglect to bring a strong hook at the beginning (introduction paragraph) and wind up with an impressive conclusion to create the reader want to go over the interesting persuasive essay topics of your pick. The simplest way to decide on a persuasive essay topic is to talk about a present issue. Feel free to choose a topic which you will delight in writing about and not just one which you think will please your professor. Persuasive essays are a really good means to encourage the reader to check at a particular topic in a different light. The use of the essay is to select an argument and attempt to persuade the reader to adopt it. Examples might also be included in each one of the body paragraphs to more support and clarify your primary points. Where to Find Persuasive Essay Topics for Colleges Students Although having the ability to write persuasively can look like a tough thing for children to learn, remind them that everyone has valid opinions. When you're permitted to write about whatever you want, never rely on a person's thoughts about this issue you like as a pivotal criterion for your choice. The very first thing you must realize searching for an ideal topic is that your opinion is the thing that matters the most. The list you'll find here is not aiming high merely to persuade people who you're right. To begin with, if you're arranging a persuasive speech, you ought to think about a topic that could create mental pictures in the minds of your audience. Each time you would like to make sure your persuasive speech success, you ought to go far past the topic and words you have prepared. Picking the correct topic for a persuasive speech is occasionally not such an easy issue to do as it might appear. One other important issue when picking a persuasive speech topic is to select a topic that may provoke your audience a little. The Secret to Persuasive Essay Topics for Colleges Students Before students begin to write, it is a fantastic idea for them to earn a list of the points they would like to make to their readers. In such a scenario, a student is needed to decide on an acceptable topic to write about. Even a student can begin a business online. Learn which of the topics, you presently have a fairly good background on which will make it possible for you to have a relative edge. English language classes usually expect a lot of writing. A broad subject always seems simpler to write about as you're able to discover a lot of materials about it. Persuasive Essay Topics for Colleges Students Can Be Fun for Everyone You may find there's a compelling argument for learning another language after all! The significance of research in persuasive writing can't be overstated. Possessing excellent research abilities and selecting an excellent topic is critical. Working women should not receive any privileges.

Symbolism of the Journey - 989 Words

Symbolism of the Literature You are about to be taken on a journey as I tell of two short stories, â€Å"A Worn Path† and â€Å"I Used to Live Here Once†. One story will keep you in suspense wondering about this little old ladies purpose of walking a dark path, while the other story seems to be taking the character back in time to find she is only having an after death experience. As you read of the two stories, you will find they are similar in the fact that both have a symbolism of death. The short story â€Å"A Worn Path† surrounds the character Phoenix Jackson. The setting of the story is in December on a very cold day early in the morning. The content of this story suggests Phoenix Jackson is a very old woman who walks from the old Natchez†¦show more content†¦For a minute Phoenix was confused of the reason for being there. She suddenly remembers and in her imagination brings him back to life. She makes a comment that suggest she is remembering an image of her grandson when she says â€Å"I remember so plain now. I am not going to forget him again, no, the whole enduring time. I could tell him from all others in creation† (AN Q). After getting the medicine from the nurse, she speaks briefly of a paper windmill for her grandson. The story ends with her going down the stairs. Phoenix taps the floor with her cane before going down the steps just as she did in the beginning of the story when she taps the frozen ground with her cane. Her desperate need for companionship is demonstrated when she has a vision of a boy offering her a piece of cake on a plate. It is believed the boy in the vision was her deceased grandson. Phoenix’s imagination of her grandson still existing is her way of coping with the hardness of her life. We find at the end, the journey may have been more of a necessity for Phoenix than for her grandson. She made this journey to meet her own needs, and what started out a life-sustaining j ourney ends inShow MoreRelatedJourney Symbolism in Literature1672 Words   |  7 Pageswill critically analyze the symbolism of journey-and its literary importance- between â€Å"The Road Not Taken† and â€Å"I Used to Live Here†. This critical paper chose to write itself upon symbolism’s journeys within literature. The tales chose are from â€Å"I used to Live Here† (Rhys) as well as â€Å"The Road Not Taken† (Frost). The choice in comparative analysis is due to how they both swim in a sea of metaphorical symbolism. The similarity is that both authors use the symbolisms in their literature. That’sRead MoreSymbolism Of The Road Journey1547 Words   |  7 PagesThe symbolism of the journey effectively reinforces the idea of the characters enviable growth and change emphasising the films genre of a Road Movie. This is done by representing us with a flawed family who require change, to grow and get Olive to her pageant. The families obst acles are exhibited through the dinner table scene. Dwayne the brother is a perfect symbol of the obstacles imposed by the road trip. Portrayed as self absorbed before the road trip (journey), his hatred for his family, andRead MoreSymbolism In Long Days Journey Into The Night Essay1153 Words   |  5 PagesSymbolism is prevalent throughout the play, Long Day’s Journey into Night. The three most notable symbols, the fog, the foghorn and MaryÂ’s glasses, interpret the author’s life at best. There is double meaning to fog in this play because it is seen as the substance abuse issue and the atmosphere of the family. These are representations of illusions and the family as a whole not wanting to face actuality. 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This statement is supported by both Margaret Atwood’s fictional dystopian novel ‘The Handmaid’s Tale’ and Oliver Stone’s crime fiction film ‘Natural Born Killers’. Through the use of multiple techniques Atwood makes it clear that the protagonist Offred undertakes inner and imaginative journeys during the course of the novel and learns from them. Likewise, Stone uses an array of film techniquesRead MoreRabbit Proof Fence Essay728 Words   |  3 Pagesthe concept of the physical journey and specifically that it is the journey, not the destination that matters. Noyce has used a number of filimic and literary techniques thoughout â€Å"Rabbit Proof Fence† to ddo this. The use of symbolism, lighting, characterisation and camera angles all enable Noyce to express the physical journey being explored. The cover of Kellehers’ novel ______ uses visual techniques such as colour, blending and dark patches to convey the type of journey being explored through hisRead MoreEssay Death of the Moth.1046 Words   |  5 PagesWoolf incorporates symbolism in her essay by describing the moth as life and energy. So simple a form of the energy and taken a tiny bead of pure life and decking it as lightly as possible with down and feathers, had set it dancing and zig-zagging to show us the true nature of life quoted from the essay. Another way she incorporates symbolism is by describing the months journey to death. Woolf also describes the scenery, the horses, and the farm itself. The month had traveled from one windowsillRead MoreHow Theme Shapes a Story632 Words   |  3 Pagesâ€Å"Theme will attempt to hold all the elements of your story in place. It is like a cup. A vessel. A goblet†(Bain, T 2010). In this paper will attempt to explore how literary elements like symbolism and character build and affect the narrative of them e in a story. One element of a story’s theme is symbolism. Symbolism according to our text is something that has a literal identity but also stands for something else (Clugston, R 2010). For an example the five interlocking ring of the Olympic symbolRead MoreEssay Symbolism In Heart Of Darkness1077 Words   |  5 Pages Submitting to Symbolism nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Every great author posses the ability to create a novel deeply woven in symbolism and subliminal messages. Underneath the literal journey encountered in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness lies a tale saturated with subtle, yet, significant imagery that brings forth the true meaning of the novella. Throughout Heart of Darkness Conrad uses a plethora of simple colors, objects, and places to convey multifaceted images and ideas. His fine executionRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown945 Words   |  4 Pagesfrequently use symbolism and allegory to spark the reader’s interest. This style of writing builds on the emotions of the reader. It creates a visual image making the story real and believable. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† these literary devices are used to bring emphasis to Brown’s struggle with his moral and spiritual beliefs. Goodman Brown is challenged with an important decision to keep his faith or follow the temptation of evil. Allegory and symbolism of the pink ribbons